Hinduism at a Glance: Sacred Texts

Hinduism is one of the world’s most complex religions. It has a whole library of sacred texts that discuss diverse ideas from atoms as the fundamental building blocks of the physical world, to the liberation of the soul and its merger with the infinite universe, and everything else in between.

In this series “Hinduism at a Glance,” I want to help my readers understand the different aspects of Hinduism, and my first post (this one) is about Hindu sacred texts. Reading about the different categories of Hindu sacred texts is like reading the contents section of a book. It gives one a reasonable overview of what the book is going to be about, so I think this is a good place to start.

Also, I intend to refer to these texts in my writings about Hinduism going forward, so I want to have a handy reference guide ready for my readers.

In this post, I will explain the different categories and subcategories of Hindu sacred literature, with a brief explanation of the contents of each as well as a list of some representative texts in each category.

Since there is an overwhelming amount of literature to go through, I have put the subcategories and representative works in drop-down lists at the bottom of each category. Readers can get an overview by just reading through the categories or click on the links under each category for details of subcategories and representative works.

I have also given estimated dates for categories and individual texts where applicable. Please make sure to read my brief note about the dating of texts from ancient India at the end of this post.

Hindu Sacred Texts

Shruti (श्रुति; Revealed knowledge, divine origin)

Shruti means “that which is heard.” Shruti is said to be knowledge obtained by the great sages through divine revelation. These texts have been passed down through the oral tradition, with absolutely no alterations for the past 3500 years or more.

There were times when writing Shruti works down was forbidden, but they have been written down for reference and preservation purposes during many periods through history.

Historically, manuscripts were written on cured palm leaves, birch-bark paper, and other semi-permanent materials that lasted a few hundred years. Every few hundred years, fresh manuscripts would be made for preservation.

However, Shruti was never transmitted through written materials, only orally from teacher to student. There are several reasons for this, but one obvious reason is that intonations, melodies, and meters form an important aspect of the Vedas, and these have to be learned and passed down orally for accurate transmission.

Veda (वेद; The Vedas)

The main Shruti works are the Vedas, especially the oldest portion of Vedic literature called Saṃhitā, which are collections of hymns. There are four collections. These are called the Ṛgveda, Yajurveda, Sāmaveda, and Atharvaveda.

Each Saṃhitā additionally has supplementary materials attached to it, which include commentaries, instructions for rituals, philosophical/metaphysical interpretations of hymns, and so on.

The supplementary layers are thought to have been composed in the centuries following the compilation of the hymns. Since they are an integral part of the Vedas, some categorize them as Shruti along with the Saṃhitā, but others categorize them under Smṛti (i.e., texts of human origin).

The supplementary layers are Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka, and Upanishad. There were numerous Vedic schools across the length and breadth of India, and each school had its own supplementary materials. It is thought that, at one time, there must have been thousands of Brāhmaṇa, Āraṇyaka, and Upanishad. Many of these have been lost in the mists of time, but a surprising number still survive.

Recent evidence from multiple disciplines suggests that the oldest portions of the Vedas go back to 5000-3000 BCE.

Smṛti (स्मृति; Remembered texts, human authorship)

In contrast to Shruti, Smṛti means “that which is remembered.” Unlike Shruti, which are thought to be of divine origin, Smṛti are authored by humans, so they can be transmitted more freely, from memory.

For instance, stories from the Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata are recounted freely from memory in many settings. Several written versions of these epics also exist in different languages, each a masterpiece in its own right. But the oldest surviving editions of these epics are the ones that were authored by the sages Vālmiki and Vyāsa, respectively, sometime during the middle of the 1^st millennium BCE.

The oldest surviving versions of most Smṛti works are conservatively dated to be from the 1^st millennium BCE or 1^st millennium CE, but the information or knowledge contained in them is thought to go back much earlier, given that many surviving works mention or reference earlier works or authorities.

The different types of Smṛti works are listed below in order of closeness to the Vedas (closest to more distant). Dates given are estimated dates/date ranges for surviving editions.

Vedāṅga (वेदाङ्ग; “Limbs” of the Vedas)

Vedāṅga include linguistics, astronomy, geometry, and other disciplines that were developed to assist with the study of the Vedas. These disciplines helped interpret and understand the Vedas correctly (Sanskrit grammar, phonetics, etymology), memorize and transmit them faithfully through the oral tradition (phonetics, prosody), live an ethical life as per Vedic principles (law codes), keep track of the proper timings for performing rituals (astronomy and calendar science), figure out precise measurements for constructing different types of ritual altars (geometry), and so on. A large number of both Vedic-era (roughly up to 500 BCE) and post-Vedic texts in these disciplines are still surviving.

Click to see Vedanga texts

Shikshā (शिक्षा; Phonetics)
- Pāṇiniya Shikshā (पाणिनीय शिक्षा; Phonetic rules for Vedic recitation; 600–400 BCE or earlier)
- Nāradīya Shikshā (नारदीय शिक्षा; Musical rules for Sāmaveda chants; 400–200 BCE)
- Dozens of other texts, both Vedic and post-Vedic
Chandas (छन्दस्; Prosody)

Rkprātishākhya Chandas (ऋक्प्रातिशाख्य छन्दस्; Rgveda phonetics and prosody; 700–500 BCE)
Piṅgala Chandahśāstra (पिङ्गल छन्दःशास्त्र; Metrical science for Vedic poetry; 600–400 BCE)
Many more

Vyākaraṇa (व्याकरण; Grammar)
- Ashtādhyāyi (अष्टाध्यायी; Foundational Sanskrit grammar by Pāṇini; 600–400 BCE)
- Mahābhāṣya (महाभाष्य; Commentary on Ashtādhyāyi by Patañjali; 400–150 BCE)
- Many more
Nirukta (निरुक्त; Etymology)
- Nirukta (निरुक्त; Etymological explanations of Vedic words by Yāska; 800–500 BCE)
- Nighaṇṭu (निघण्टु; Vedic glossary, precursor to Nirukta; 1000–700 BCE)
- Several more
Jyotisha (ज्योतिष; Astronomy, calendar science, and timekeeping)
- Vedāṅga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्ग ज्योतिष; Early Vedic astronomy; 1000–800 BCE)
- Sūrya Siddhānta (सूर्य सिद्धान्त; Astronomical treatise; 1000 BCE–400 CE)
- Several more
Kalpa (कल्प; Instruction for performing rituals and construction of fire altars, law codes, etc.)
- Shulba Sūtra (शुल्ब सूत्र; Geometry and measurements for constructing ritual altars)
- Shrauta Sūtra (श्रौत सूत्र; Large-scale or public Vedic rituals)
- Grhya Sūtra (गृह्य सूत्र; Domestic or household Vedic rituals)
- Dharma Sūtra (धर्म सूत्र; Social and ethical duties, law codes)

Upaveda (उपवेद; Applied Vedas)

Upaveda are applied sciences (medicine, martial arts, music, statecraft) that evolved from the Vedas. Numerous texts survive or are known of in each of these disciplines, both from the Vedic era (pre-500 BCE) and later.

Shaḍdarshana (षड्दर्शन; Six perspectives)

The Shaḍdarshana are six schools of Hindu reasoning that systematize and interpret the spiritual and metaphysical insights of the Vedas.

Each school offers a distinct perspective on the nature of reality, truth, knowledge, and the liberation of the soul. Foundational texts are attributed to ancient sages from the Vedic period (pre-500 BCE).

The remarkable thing about the Shaḍdarshana schools is that several them engage in scientific inquiry into the nature of reality. For example, proposing that the physical world may be made up of atoms (Vaisheshika school) is more akin to science than to religion. Proposing the rules of logic and epistemology for differentiating truth from falsehood (Nyaya school) has to do with reasoning rather than dogma.

Itihāsa (इतिहास; Histories)

Itihāsa are the great Sanskrit epics (mainly Rāmāyaṇa and Mahābhārata), which recount historical events in a story format interwoven with moral, philosophical, and spiritual teachings. They serve as both historical accounts and guides for righteous living, rooted in Vedic traditions. The oldest surviving editions of the two Itihāsa are from the mid-first millennium BCE.

Purāṇa (पुराण; Ancient narratives)

Purāṇa are encyclopedic texts that preserve ancient stories about the Gods, cosmology, genealogy, historical, cultural, and geographical information, and information about pilgrimage sites and religious practices. The surviving versions of these works are thought to have been composed between 300 BCE and 1000 CE.

Dharmashāstra (धर्मशास्त्र; Legal and ethical treatises)

Dharmashāstra are texts outlining rules for ethical conduct, social duties, and legal principles based on Vedic ideals. They evolved from Dharmasūtra, which are a part of the Vedānga category of works above. Compiled primarily between 300 BCE and 500 CE, they address personal, familial, and societal obligations, shaping traditional Hindu law and morality.

Āgama (आगम; Received worship traditions)

Vedic religion is ritual-based. Geometrically precise fire-altars are constructed for rituals, but these are temporary structures, and they are dismantled after the ceremony. Multiple Gods are invoked during ceremonies and offered sacrifices to.

However, there has also always been a parallel tradition of building and worshipping at shrines to specific Gods. The shrines started out small, but evolved into elaborate temples under the patronage of powerful rulers, especially during the early part of the 1^st millennium CE, giving rise to a vibrant culture of temple-based worship.

This temple-centric worship tradition is called Āgama (literally “that which has come down” through the ages). Āgama is not in conflict with the Vedic religion. It adopts Vedic Gods and incorporates Vedic principles and ideas, but it has its own distinct identity.

Āgama sacred texts deal with subjects such as temple architecture, rules for temple-based worship, and spiritual practices including yoga and meditation, often focusing on one specific God – Shiva, Vishnu, or Devi (the Goddess).

Most practicing Hindus today follow Āgama traditions for daily worship and Vedic rites (homa) for weddings and other special occasions.

Tantra (तन्त्र; Spiritual practices & philosophy)

Tantra is a tradition of spiritual practices, rituals, meditation techniques, and philosophy aimed at attaining spiritual liberation, material wealth, or various others types of powers.

In Hinduism, there are Goddess-centric (Shākta), Shiva-centric (Shaiva), as well as Vishnu-centric (Vaishnava) tantric traditions, but the former two are more common. Tantra is also an important part of Buddhism and Jainism, which I will discuss in a separate post.

Tantra, especially when Goddess-centric, tends to focus on channeling shakti (literally “energy,” thought to be manifested as the divine feminine) through meditation, Kundalini yoga, chanting mantras, and various other practices, sometimes including occult practices.

Dating Ancient India

Historical texts from ancient India were given rough dates by scholars some centuries ago based on limited information available to them at that time, but these dates are being reevaluated in light of new evidence.

With new technology, evidence from fields as diverse as astronomy, river hydrology, geology, and climatology is emerging that pushes the dates of Ancient Indian civilization much earlier than it was previously assumed. However, research is still ongoing and arriving at a consensus may take time.

Another challenge when it comes to dating texts is that some texts have core older portions as well as newer portions added at a later date, and historians quibble over which date to use.

Of course, there are also entire categories of literature, with numerous works that were composed over a period of several centuries, which results in vast date-ranges for some categories.

Dating Ancient Indian history is an extremely complex subject that I will try to write a separate article about at a later time.